インドネシア、なぜモダニズムは継承されるのか
Indonesia — Why Modernism is Inherited
By Harry Kurniawan(Ph.D student at Tohoku University; and Lecturer at Department of Architecture and Planning, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Indonesia)
Modernism in architecture and indigenous architecture in Indonesia always becomes interesting topics to be discussed as two as well as a single entity. This is proofed by the fact that discussions on those — as long as could be documented — are occurred since Netherlands' colonialization era and do not show signs of stopping until today, even though the discussion was not necessarily in the same intensity. These discussions are not only continuous and large in number, but also varied in form, such as in books and magazines' articles, inauguration speech of professors, congress/ seminars/ symposiums' talks, and also design competitions. In 1923, for example, Indisch Bouwkundig Tijdschrift magazine became the media for a discussion between Charles Prosper Wolff Schoemaker and Maclaine Pont about western architectural approach versus or with local vernacular architectural concept. In 1982, 2nd National Congress of Indonesian Institute of Architects held sessions of discussion under the theme Mencari Arsitektur Indonesia (the Search for Indonesian Architecture). In 2011, Symposium 111111 invited architects and academicians to sit in a table and talk about Matinya Arsistektur Tradisional (The Death of Traditional Architecture). And since 2013, annually, a competition about Arsitektur Nusantara (Nusantara architecture) *1 was held and sponsored by private sector. As a scientific awareness, discussion and study around this topic also triggered the establishment of mAAN (modern Asian Architecture Network) in 2001 as group that share same interest on modern architecture, townscape, and civil-engineering heritages in Asia.
On this occasion, a theme of "Indonesia — Why Modernism is Inherited" is discussed in order to accompany the movement of architecture in Indonesia which began to attract attention from outside Indonesia through publications and exhibitions. Therefore, the question in the theme will be answered by seeing modernism from two points of view which are modernism as a process of change, and modernism as way of talking architecture.
Modernism as Process of Change
Hilde Heynen (1999–), in her Architecture and Modernity: A Critique book, said that modernism has three meanings. First, it means present or current. Second meaning is the new. Third, it is connoted with momentary, or the transient. These three give 'the specific quality to be different from the past and points the way toward the future' *2. Modernism, in continuing the previous description, is also associated with the rejection of the inheritance of the past, and the conflict with tradition. These descriptions implicitly show a process of change from something which is not 'modern' yet into 'modern' condition — a modernization process. For Johannes Widodo *3, an architecture historian, modernization is a socio-cultural process that happens continuously in forms of transplantation, adjustment, adaptation, accommodation, assimilation, hybridization and materialization — materialized in very diverse architectural works.In Indonesia, modernization as a socio-cultural process can be traced back to around 6000 years ago, when ancient Austronesian lived in most of South East Asia islands. Then, this modernization process was continued through the influence of Hindu-Buddhist culture, Islamic culture, Chinese and European culture that indirectly brought in by foreign traders during their trading activities. All these influences can be seen in many cultural elements and artifacts including architecture, such as houses, temple, palaces, mosques, and cities structure. Meanwhile, modernism is also closely associated with the technical, social, and cultural change happened in Europe as an impact of Industrial Revolution in 1917. Considering these perspectives, the illustration of modernism in development of architecture in Indonesia will be limited from 1920s till this date.
1920s–1940s
Before Indonesia *4 stands as independent country, Indonesia went to a long period of colonialism by several countries, where Netherlands is the longest by approximately 350 years. This colonialism has brought many stories of interaction between native and colonial civilizations. One small part of those stories is occurred in a period when Netherlands Indies *5 reached their new political status and consciousness and 'embraced its role as a faithful sponsor of ethnographers' *6 after the implementation of ethical policy. This new development, in architecture, triggered more study on indigenous architectures and explorations on new architecture style which more representing Netherlands Indies' identity. This spirit of exploration was also supported by the conditions in which the established 19th century's colonial style —mostly in Neo-classic architecture — was considered no more appropriate with the Netherlands Indies' condition in facing climate and socio-cultural conditions. In anticipating the climate, Netherlands architects offered solutions learnt from indigenous architecture. The problem with rain, sun, and humidity was solved by implementing high pitch roof with long cantilevered and veranda — which is basic elements of indigenous architecture, and by creating double façade with corridor along the building's perimeter. In the hand of young Netherlands architects who came for worked during this period, the influence of modern architecture movement in Europe such as DeStijl, Art Nouveau, Art Deco, and Functionalism was merged in the problem solving process. One of the examples is Wolff Schoemaker projects — such as Villa Isola (1933) and Preanger Hotel (1929) — which is simple in language but solve climate problem. Jan Van Dullemen *7 used the "Tropical Modernity" phrase for the title of his book which discusses the work of C.P Wolff Schoemaker in Netherlands Indies. Another example is projected by Savoy-Homann Hotel by A.F. Aalbers (1947), Gouvernements Bedrijven (Gedung Sate/ Governor Office of the West Java Province) by J. Gerber (1920) [fig.1], and PTPN XI Office Surabaya, East Java which is designed by Cuypers in 1924 [fig.2]. All this "Tropical Netherlands" *8 buildings represented the perspective that western architecture was more superior that eastern architecture and as its implication eastern architecture could only be applied as ornament or decoration.
- fig.1: Office of Governor of East Java Province (1931) is designed by W. Lemei. It took Hilversum City Hall (1928–1931) by W. M. Dudok as precedent with merged several solutions for tropical climate. (Photo by Harry Kurniawan)
- fig.2: Cuypers designed HVA (Handelsvereeniging Amsterdam) building, which is now PTPN XI Office in Surabaya, East Java, in 1924 by combining Art-Deco, traditional elements, and tropical climate solutions. (Photo by Harry Kurniawan)
Other side of the story of modern architecture and identity, beside Tropical Netherlands vision, is also filled with the birth of "new Indies style." It was emerging in 1920–30s when some architects brought west and east together without suppressing either. H.P Berlage, famous Netherlands architect, who made a short visit around that time, formulated "Indies architecture" as a synthesis of two elements: the modern constructive spirit, born of a rationalistic and intellectual knowledge that is universal and therefore eternal, and the spiritual aesthetic elements that are particularistic and therefore everywhere different. The task was to integrate the two elements, one representing the modernist "West" and the other, the localized "East." *9 Henri Maclaine Pont and Thomas Karsten gave some best examples through the Bandoeng Technische Hoogeschool, today's Institute of Technology of Bandung, building (1919) in West Java and Poh Sarang Church Complex (1936) in East Java both designed by Pont; and Sobokarti Theater (1931) in Central Java designed by Karsten. Here, the relation between the project's location and the used elements of indigenous architecture did not has to be conform- as seen in the use of Minangkabau (West Sumatra) roof form in Bandoeng Technische Hoogeschool which is located in West Java. The more important thing in this idea is the ability to use the principles of indigenous buildings so they can function well with the building programs.
1950s–1960s
- fig.3: National Monument in Jakarta
(1961) built to represents new Indonesia
pride through its modern transformation
of lingga-yoni form.
(Photo by Harry Kurniawan)
While projects done by foreign architects show their pure modernism, projects done by Indonesian architects and artists brought forward the collaboration between art (sculpture) and architecture. It could be seen at National Monument that transform lingga-yoni *10 to modern presentation, several monuments on Jakarta's main street such as Tugu Selamat Datang/ 'Welcome' Monument (1962), Tugu Pembebasan Irian Barat/ West Papua Liberation Monument (1964–65), Tugu Dirgantara/ Dirgantara Monument (1964–65), and the design of Indonesia Pavilion for New York World Fair 1964 — even on the built version the hand sculpture for roof crown was replaced with more simple flower representation form. Silaban, who shared with Soekarno the same vision about architecture, said that "modern architecture can describe (or at least portray) Indonesia's identity." *11 This direction produced monumental symbolic meaning which elevated indigenous culture and skill in the same level as modern cultures.
970s–1980s
- fig.4: The architect of Head Office of
Universitas Indonesia (1984),
Gunawan Tjahjono, used typological approach
— introduced by Aldo Rossi — to
transform the idea of primitive hut and get
the building form.
(Photo by Harry Kurniawan)
The development of architecture during this period was varied, depended on building types or the actors of a building's design and construction. International Style, as first example, was dominating the big cities skyline. This tower buildings — usually serves as the office — is easily identified from its box mass and full glass façade. Second variation is European eclectic style which is popular as Spanyolan (Spanish-like style), Mediterranean style, gaya Romawi (Roman style), and gaya Yunani (Greece style). This eclectic style is dominating the residential projects, especially built by house developer, and done in both serious and comical way *12. Third variation is Traditional eclectic style. This term is used to describe buildings that built by attaching traditional architecture elements into modern type building. It was used in many local government offices as materialization of national government's "instruction" to present their locality. Since then, this style became popular choice for implemented by ordinary people in many products such as village gate, building gate, and even for animal cage. As an exception of this variation, this period presented some outstanding projects such as Wisma Dharmala Office Tower (1986) by Paul Rudolph, Head Office of Universitas Indonesia (1984) by Gunawan Tjahjono [fig.4], Soekarno-Hatta International Airport (1986–91) by Paul Andreu, Sendangsono Pilgrimage Complex (1974) [fig.5] and Wisma Kuwera (1986–1999) by Y.B. Mangunwijaya, and also Indonesia Pavilion for 1970 Osaka World Exposition (1970) by Robi Sularto. For them, modernism — which is rational — was used as design approach while traditional architectures were taken as object of study.
- fig.5: Sendansono Pilgrimage Complex (1974) by Y.B. Mangunwijaya is an exhibition of synthesis local craftsmanship and modern technology and architecture language. (Photo by Harry Kurniawan)
1990s–Date
One of important change in Indonesian architecture started in early 1990s, a few years earlier than the moment of the reform in 1998 — a change of regime that gave effect to almost every aspects of live of Indonesian people. The new culture in Indonesian architecture was sounded by a group of young architects that named their selves as Arsitek Muda Indonesia (AMI)/ Indonesian Young Architect. Through their manifesto *13, they stated their objective to "... fight for idealism. Idealism for festive climate in the world of architecture, which gives recognition to the architect as a creator." They brought design critics — something that is uncommon in Indonesia during 1980s, discussions, open houses, and exhibitions in to Indonesia architect community. At the same time, as also stated in the manifesto, they also proposed — with the spirit of freshness — new explorations on concept, form, and material to architecture design in Indonesia. Duta Niaga House (1993) by Sardjono Sani, as an example, bravely introduced deconstruction theory in house design.1998 reformation, which is noted as one of bleak period in the history of Indonesia, offers positive consequences such as the warranty for freedom of speech and gather, decentralized government power, and new good governance government. After the economic downturn — in the early post-reformation time — was slowly recover, new economic and social demography was established, such as, by the increasing number of middle age rich people and small to middle private businesses. These new post-reformation condition, positively, generated more architecture projects — in numbers and types, more creative rooms for architects, and more opportunities to involve in government projects — as a result of transparent tender process. It is also noted that, during last 10 years, Indonesian architects gain bigger appreciation from common people, industrial and commercial sectors, mass media, and also head of government institutions. The result could be seen in more quality projects spread in various cities such as Andra Matin House in Jakarta (2007–2013) by Andra Matin, Library of Universitas Indonesia (2009) by DCM [fig.6], Masjid Raya Sumatera Barat/ West Sumatera Grand Mosque (2007) by Rizal Muslimin [fig.7], Persada Soekarno Blitar: Museum and Presidential Library (2003–2004) by Baskoro Tedjo, and Indonesia Pavilion for 2010 Shanghai World Expo (2010) by Budi Lim Architect. They describe their architecture in relationship with traditional architecture reference, and transform it in modern language.
- fig.6: "The ancient Indonesian practice of inscribing wisdom on stone tablets," which is inspired the design of University of Indonesia Central Library (2009) by DCM, bridge the use of modern technology, function, and vision and behavior of university's society. (Photo by Mirzadelya Devanastya)
- fig.7: A big four pointed tip form which is multi-interpreted by people is a winning design by Rizal Muslimin/ Urbane. This mosque is an excellent sample on integrating local tradition and architecture, Islamic history and value, and function into one building form. (Photo by Harry Kurniawan)
As closing statement of this period, we can see the resume and the tendency of how architecture created in Indonesia through the first participation of Indonesia in Venice Architecture Biennale. Indonesia's Pavilion for 2014 Venice Architecture Biennale took 'Craftsmanship: Material Consciousness' theme to respond the theme 'Absorbing Modernity: 1914–2014' given by Rem Koolhaas (the 2014 Bienalle's director). Indonesia pavilion offered a glimpse into the dynamics of architecture practice and discourse in Indonesia occurring in the past one hundred years and a fundamental thing in the process of producing and creating architecture, which is: craftsmanship *14. In related to the development of architecture in Indonesian, craftsmanship is stated in this pavilion as a Indonesia's unique approach to progress, growth, and evolution, which is deeply rooted in culture and locality and a conscious decision/choice that enjoys a close relationship with the quality of life in Indonesia *15.
Modernism as Way of Talking Architecture
This discussion — modernism as way of talking architecture — was inspired by Adrian Forty explanation on modernist architecture. He said that modernist architecture, as well as being a new style of building, was also a new way of talking about architecture, instantly recognizable by a distinctive vocabulary. Wherever two or more of the words "form," "space," "design," "order" or "structure" are found in company, can be sure that one is in the world of modernist discourse. These five words frequently defined through each other and exist in delicate, precariously balanced relationship to one another. Disturb one and you disturb the lot. It is this feature in particular of the vocabularies that suggest that modernist discourse was indeed a system." *16Meanwhile, since hundreds years ago, traditional architecture has been stand up and serve their society. It undoubtedly has demonstrated success in fulfilling its objectives. Through its definition, traditional architecture, a "result of man's elemental needs and his intricate relationship with the society and the environment he lives in ," *17 has been shown the ideal role of architecture. For example, we can learn from Limas house (a traditional architecture in South Sumatera), Rumah Gadang (or Big House from Minangkabau culture), Rumah Joglo (traditional Javanese House) on how a house is a place for individual and social daily live, place for ceremonies (such as birth welcoming, wedding, and funeral), and a reflection of its kinship system. They also showed us how each element of the house defines and regulates its use in any activities or events. For example, floor level and columns indicate the division of private and semi private–public space, and serviced area and circulation area, the orientation, and how specific user plays in each space during an event [fig.8].
- fig.8: Tenganan Traditional village (Bali) exemplifies a division of private, public and sacred space as a result of interaction between religion, human, and its environment. (Photo by Harry Kurniawan)
This ideal role, proposed by Y.B. Mangunwijaya *18 as wastu citra — a combination of the totality of life (lebensanschauung) and aesthetic — is shown by function and image played by architecture *19. Function refers to benefit, UTILIZATION which is achieved, and SKILL/ ABILITY ASPECT; while image is described as an impression of full and total understanding that gives a MEANING, is more related to spiritual meaning (its about house owner's rank and dignity) and CULTURAL STATUS *20. This ideal role expresses an advanced system of architecture vocabularies, a way of talking architecture. It shares similar universal value with modernist architecture does but give essential linkage with man and society. For this quality, traditional architecture becomes a perfect reference in making an Indonesian architecture which has Indonesian identity and in line with the times [fig.9].
- fig.9: Oval Type Traditional House of North Nias as seen through other traditional house window describes how form is related to its environment. (Photo by Harry Kurniawan)
Epilogue
At the end, two things can be noted. First, Modernism in time line of architecture development in Indonesia plays different rules in each period. It is a bridge between two civilizations in 1920s–40s. It transformed to a description or portrait of Indonesia in 1950s–60s. It is used as an approach in 1970s–80s, and as a language for communicating with its cultural root since 1990s. Second, the reasons why modernism is inherited in Indonesia, by recall the three meaning of modernism ('present-ness, fresh-ness, and new-ness') explained by Heynen (1999) and the description above, can be said as:1. Modernism is giving the tools for creating better Indonesian society, which is in accordance to its time.
2. Modernism is giving the context for architect to be creative. The conflict between modern and tradition or now and the past is truly faced by modern Indonesian society, but it is also true that to break away from the past is merely impossible for Indonesian. Past is always rooted in the personal character and shown in its time. Positively, it challenges architect to propose a solution that accept, neglect, or in negotiate it.
3. Modernism in architecture, especially with its universal value which does not need context, provide the frame and the method to explore and experimenting the new ideas and also to be critical with the essence of architecture for its users.
4. Modernism, essentially, is embedded part of Indonesia. It could be recalled and used — with adaption — for fulfilling society's needs.
*1. Nusantara is a terminology from 12th–16th century Javanese language literature, used to illustrate a cluster of islands located between two continents and two oceans.
*2. Hilde Heynen,Architecture and Modernity: A Critique, The MIT Press, 1999.
*3. as cited in Avianti Armand et al. ed., Craftsmanship: Material Consciousness, PT IMAJI Media Pusata, 2014, p.9.
*4. The word 'Indonesia' in 1920s–30s explanation is used to show similarities of regions and local communities with the independent Indonesia has. During this colonial era, especially in early period, colonialism was done on each districts of 'Indonesia' which each district/kingdom had their own leader or king.
*5. Netherlands Indies is the name that used to describe Indonesia during Netherlands colonialism era.
*6. Gouda, 1995 as cited in Abidin Kusno, Behind the Postcolonial: Architecture, Urban Space and Political Cultures In Indonesia, Routledge, 2000, p.29.
*7. His book title is Tropical Modernity — Life and Work of C.P. Wolff Schoemaker, published in 2009 by Sun.
*8. Tropical Netherlands is Abidin Kusno's (2000) term to describe buildings built in style brought from Europe with local climate solution. (see Abidin Kusno (2000))
*9. As cited in Kusno, 2000, p. 32.
*10. Lingga-yoni is a symbol of fertility is often found in Hindu temples.
*11. as cited in — Tegang Bentang, Gramedia Pustaka Utama, 2012, p.61.
*12. What is meant by 'serious' and 'comical' in this sentence is the quality of implementation of each styles' architectural character.
*13. As cited in Irianto P.H. and Yori Antar ed., AMI: Perjalanan 1999, 1999
*14. as cited in Avianti Armand, et al. ed. (2014)
*15. as cited in Avianti Armand, et al. ed. (2014)
*16. as cited in Adrian Forty, Words and Buildings: A Vocabulary of Modern Architecture, Thames & Hudson, 2004, p.19.
*17. William S. W. Lim , Tan Hock Beng, Contemporary vernacular : evoking traditions in Asian Architecture, Singapore:Select Books, 1998, p.20.
*18. Y.B. Mangunwijaya was a pastor, academician, architect and budayawan. He gave big influence in his fields. In architecture, he published Wastu Citra and received Aga Khan Award for his Kampung Code Revitalization Project.
*19. Y.B. Mangunwijaya, Wastu Citra, PT. Gramedia Pustaka Utama, 2009.
*20. As written by Y.B. Mangunwijaya in his Wastu Citra book. The use of capital letter is as it is s written the book.
Harry Kurniawan
Born in 1980. Ph.D student at Department of Architecture and Building Science, Graduate School of Engineering,Tohoku University. Completed a master's program in Gadjah Mada University.Became a lecturer at his alma mater from 2009 till now.In 2011,received Commendation Award from Ikatan Arsitek Indonesia (IAI/Indonesian Architect Institution) Award 2011 for Architectural Writing with his article published in national newspaper in 2010. Books= 'Arsitektur Minimalis: Memahami Minimal dalam Arsitektur' (Minimalist Architecture: Understand the Minimum in Architecture)(2013) 'Perancangan Aksesibilitas untuk fasilitas Publik' (Accessibility Design for Public Facilities) (2014).'
- インドネシア、なぜモダニズムは継承されるのか
- Indonesia — Why Modernism is Inherited
